A Fine Fifteenth-Century Burgundian Paternoster

This is the documentation I wrote for a Paternoster I made to enter in an A&S Faire in Shire Abhainn Ciach Ghlais on 5 July, 2025.

A Fine Fifteenth-Century Burgundian Paternoster

 

Valentine Garnett (m.k.a. Terry L. Mumma)

valentinegarnett1524@gmail.com

Shire of Abhainn Ciach Ghlais

Kingdom of Æthelmearc

5 June, 2025

Oure fadir

That art in hevenes

Halwid be thi name

Thi kingdom come to

Be thi wille don

On erthe as in hevenes

Give to us this day oure bred ovir othir substaunce

And forgiv us oure dettis

As we forgiven oure dettours

And lede us not in to temptacioun

But delyevr us from yvel

Amen (Skeat, 1871).

The Our Father (Pater Noster), John Wycliffe translation, 1389 CE

Bede, Old English for “prayer,” would become so synonymous with strung objects for counting prayers that by 1377, bede (or bead) would assume its modern definition. The Paternoster is an early Catholic prayer counter and is the medieval predecessor to the rosary. Paternosters gained popularity because they were accessible to anyone, regardless of their social status. The Paternoster was simple to pray with, regardless of their level of education, and could be made from a variety of materials, ranging from mere knots to precious gems.

Introduction

This overview aims to supplement the research and recreation of a Paternoster depicted in a painting by Rogier van der Weyden of Philip de Croÿ from 1460. Here, I will provide a brief introduction to the painting’s human subject, a history of Medieval Paternosters, and the prayers, materials, and construction associated with them. Finally, I will detail how I recreated the luxurious yet simple Paternoster held by this accomplished Burgundian nobleman.

A Concise Biography of Philip I de Croÿ, Seigneur de Croÿ, Comte de Porcéan

Figure 1: Diptych of Philippe (sic) de Croÿ and 
Virgin and Child. Rogier van der Weyden. (1460). 
[Oil on Oak Panels]. Public Domain. 

Philip de Croÿ, (b. 1435) was a senior member of the powerful Burgundian noble House of Croÿ. He was a prominent nobleman, military leader, and a fixture in the Burgundian and Habsburg courts. He was the son of Antoine de Croÿ, Comte de Porcéan, and Marguerite de Lorraine-Vaudémont (Paravicini, 2020).

In 1455, Philip’s lifelong friend and military and political associate, Charles the Bold, encouraged him to marry Jacqueline de Luxembourg, daughter of Louis de Luxembourg-Saint-Pol, comte de Brienne. This was not the wish of the comte de Brienne, who had his daughter locked away from Philip. Famously, Philip kidnapped Jacqueline, had the border roads of Luxembourg blocked while he married Jacqueline. Louis sent his army to retrieve his daughter, only to give up once he received news of the consummation. Philip and Jacqueline                                                                                         had three children (Paravicini, 2020).

Philip’s legacy includes a long and illustrious military career, navigating the political landscape of the time, preserving the interests of the Habsburg and Burgundian courts, and earning high-ranking positions, including Governor of Valenciennes, Lieutenant General of Liège, and Captain General of Hainaut. He was also the governor of Luxembourg and Ligny. Late in life, Philip commissioned the construction of the church Saint-Thibault de Château-Porcien, where he was buried upon his death in 1511 (Paravicini, 2020). 

Medieval Paternosters: The Roots of the Rose Garden

The Paternoster, or “pair of beads,” is a string of beads used for counting prayers, primarily the Pater Noster or “Our Father” prayer from which it derives its name (Orme, 2021).

Figure 2: The Canonbie Rosary Beads. 
(ca. late 13^th c. - early 14th c.). [Jet]. 
One of the oldest surviving examples 
of Paternosters. Museum of Scotland. 

Monks in Ireland, as early as the 4th century, prayed a series of psalms as part of their daily spiritual practice, a practice that soon became widespread in religious communities. The official use of the cords or beads as counting devices is credited to St. Augustine of Hippo in the 5^th century. This is also when St. Augustine said that venial sins are forgiven when one devoutly recites the Our Father. This is a notable step in the realization of the Paternoster. In the 6^th century, in Ireland, St Brigit of Kildare was noted to have aided her prayers with a set of modest beads that she remarked were “customary among hermits” (Wilkins, 1969). By the 7th century, Irish monks had established the practice of using knotted cords to keep track of the Psalter, a collection of 150 psalms. For the benefit of the laity who were unable to recite the psalms, either due to illiteracy or inability to read Latin, they encouraged the use of a cord with 150 knots to count 150 Pater Noster prayers instead. This is also known as the “poor man’s breviary.” Several European graves from the era revealed sets of beads that appeared to have been wrapped around the fingers of the deceased, suggesting an increase in the popularity of prayer beads amongst European Christians. A 2022 discovery at the Lindisfarne excavation unearthed a set of prayer beads made from salmon vertebrae, located near the neck of one of the human skeletons unearthed. The beads are believed to date from the 8th to 9th century, and the skeleton they belonged to likely belonged to a monk from the monastery on the island (Alberge, 2022).  One famous account of prayer beads is that of Countess Godgifu (Lady Godiva), who willed her beads to be used to adorn the statue of Our Ladye of Coventry at the Monstery in Coventry. Her beads were described as “a circlet of precious stones which she had threaded on a cord in order that by fingering them one after another she might count her prayers exactly” (Sherr Dubin, 1995). Countess Godgifu’s will is one of the earliest written records of the existence and use of Christian prayer beads. Finally, it was in the 10th century that the 150 Our Fathers of the Paternoster were shared with the public. This caught on quickly with the people surrounding the monasteries as they could be a part of the contemplative spiritual practice. It is at this time that the Ave beads, where an early form of the Ave Maria (Hail Mary) prayer was said, were introduced into the Paternoster, establishing it as the predecessor of the rosary. The foundation of the Paternoster was laid, and it was gaining steady popularity.

Figure 3:Large Paternoster. (c. 1250). [Amber].
Waterford Museum of Treasures.
Non-Commercial/Non-Competitive Educational Use

The Paternoster was easy for people to recite in prayer. Most people knew the Pater Noster prayer, as it is, much like today, the first prayer most Christians learn and fr
equently the only one they know. The Paternoster offered a method of prayer that could be recited and understood by nearly anyone, regardless of age, social class, or educational background. They did not have to read anything or even buy anything. Additionally, the Ave Maria prayer of the time was simple to learn, as it was brief compared to the modern form, encompassing only the Angelic salutation and Elizabeth's greeting to Mary as written in the Gospel of Luke (Bonaventure, 2016).

While anything could be used to count the prayers of the Paternoster, it was not long until knotted cords and strung pieces of wood were replaced by wooden and clay beads. The Paternoster was strung in divisors of 150 (10, 15, 150) to count the full round of 150 Pater Noster prayers, but strings of 20, 33, 60, 63, 72 are also well known. Depictions of Paternosters vary in length, and it is difficult to determine whether this is due to the less rigid nature of their construction compared to modern rosaries, the personal preference of the user, or the artist focusing on other details.

Figure 4: Stained glass lower
light window panel depicting
an assembly of young women
with prayer beads from the
"Young Women's Window" (1529)
in St Anietus' St. Neot Church,
Cornwall, England.
(Harrison, 2012). Creative Commons

The Paternoster continued to spread far beyond the monastery walls and became increasingly embraced by European Christendom.. It also became, often to the chagrin of the Church, a fashion statement. By the 15^th century, the use and wearing of the Paternoster had become commonplace, making it a “must-have” medieval accessory.  

An example from popular literature appears in The General Prologue of Geoffrey Chaucer’s “The Canterbury Tales,” which describes the Prioress as wearing a coral pair of beads with green gauds outfitted with a gold brooch featuring a crown, the letter “A,” and the inscription “love conquers all” in Latin.

 

Of smal coral aboute hire arm she bar

A peire of bedes, gauded al with grene

And thereon heng a brooch of gold ful sheene,

On which ther was first write a crowned A,

And after Amor vincit omnia. 

(Benson & Chaucer, 2008).

A Survey of the Construction and Components of Pre-1500 Paternosters

The majority of preserved Paternosters we have today were found in Northern and Southern Europe. The fewest extant finds come from the British Isles, and had it not been for the recovery of the Mary Rose, that contribution would be far fewer. Many Paternosters and early rosaries were destroyed or repurposed when Catholicism was outlawed.

The construction of Paternosters exhibits great variety in both extant examples and those depicted in artwork. While modern rosaries and chaplets have prescribed numbers and placement of their components, as they pertain to a rigid series of prayers, there is no such rigidity or known guidance for medieval Paternosters. Thus, Paternosters have been depicted and discovered with significant variation in the number of beads. Incidentally, these numbers are not always divisors of the 150 Pater Noster prayers, which were meant to replace reciting the Psalms.

Figure 6: Rogier van der Weyden.
(1438). The Magdalen Reading.
[Oil on Mahogany]. Detail.
Paternoster in the linear
style with loose, movable
stringing. Public Domain.

As for stringing Paternosters, it is generally accepted that silk cording was commonplace, either in the

Figure 5: Medieval amber beads on remaining
remnants of silk braid. (Date unknown).
Creative Commons. Digital image
© London Museum

form of plied silk twist or silk braid. A rare discovery, currently housed in the Museum of London, found medieval amber beads of an undetermined date, still strung on two intact remnants of silk braid, which are believed to have been part of a rosary (fig. 5). More humble creations might have used what was affordable or readily available to the maker.  Extant medieval examples are generally discovered with the cord entirely disintegrated; therefore, much of our understanding of how they were arranged and strung is culled from paintings. A typical style of stringing Paternosters, and an element that sets them apart from later rosaries, is the linear style, as seen in the Paternoster depicted in the portrait of Philip de Croÿ (figs. 1 & 15). Linear Paternosters may be tightly strung, with no movement between the beads, as Philip’s appears to be, where the user would hold each bead as they pray each subsequent prayer. Linear stringing can also be done loosely, where the user “picks up” the next bead as the unprayed beads rest at the bottom of the Paternoster and the already prayed beads fall over their hand, as depicted in another painting by van der Weyden, “The Magdalen Reading” (fig. 6). Looped Paternosters (fig. 7) were strung in a circular pattern, allowing them to be held similarly to a modern rosary or chaplet, and could also be worn as a necklace.

Figure 7:Rodrigo de Osona the Elder
and assistant. The Adoration of the Magi
(c. 1464-1510). [Oil on Pine Panel].
Detail. Paternoster worn over the
arm in the looped style of
stringing. Public Domain.

Bead materials used in Paternosters were of great variety beyond the offerings of the established Paternoster guilds of amber and jet, coral and shell (Boileau, 1879), and bone and horn. Amber, wood, and coral (considered a protective talisman) had widespread popularity. There is an account from London in 1381 that lists Paternoster beads stocked by a jeweler called Adam Ledyard. He had Paternoster (Gaud) beads of silver gilt, coral, jet, and amber (both white and yellow). He had Ave beads of jet and blue glass, as well as children’s beads of wood and bone (Evans, 1953). 

A listing, by no means complete, of known bead materials used in Paternosters:

• Agate

• Amber

• Amethyst

• Bloodstone

• Bone

• Chalcedony

• Clay

• Coral

• Carnelian

• Crystal

Figure 8: Paternosterer (Paternoster maker) from
Hausbuch der Mendelschen Zwölfbrüderstiftung,
Band 1. Nürnberg 1426–1549.
Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Public domain

• Emerald

·        • Enamel work 

·        • Garnet

·        • Gilt

·        • Glass (particularly from Venice, but later, Bohemia and Bavaria)

·        • Gold

·        • Horn

·        • Ivory

·        • Jasper

·        • Jet

·        • Malachite

Figure 9: gold trilobe bead with letters ‘R.I.A.’
from ‘GLORIA’ 14th c. Used with permission.
digital image © London Museum.
Creative Commons.

  • Pearls

·        • Rock Crystal

            • Salmon Vertebrae (Alberge, 2022). 

            • Shell

            • Silver

            • Wood (boxwood, ebony, mistletoe, pear, yew)

Figural beads were another element used in creating Paternosters, with hearts, acorns, and skulls (Memento Mori) being especially popular choices. More elaborate figural beads of saints and biblical figures were cast from precious metals. Elaborate designs and imagery were carved in relief onto beads of various gemstones, woods, and other materials. A German set of looped wooden beads terminating in a large amber bead features a figural silver pendant of Sts. Catherine and Barbara. The wooden Ave beads are arranged in decades, which are divided into sets of five by silver figural beads representing Christ’s passion: a hammer, three nails, the buffeting hand, the seamless coat, and the Crown of thorns (fig. 10). 

Figure 11: Adoration of the Magi from
the Hours of Catherine of Cleves,
Master of Catherine of Cleves, (1440).
The page is framed with a Paternoster
displaying linear stringing, capped
tassels, pearls, coral beads, a beaded
cross, a Star of Bethlehem medal,
and a small purse, likely a reliquary.
Public Domain

Figure 10: looped Paternoster of wood with amber
bead and silver-gilt pendant of two saints,
German, late 15th - early 16th century.
Used with permission.
© Victoria and Albert Museum, London, 20

When the Paternoster combined the Pater Noster and Ave Maria prayers, the larger, typically more ornate beads that separated sections of the prayer beads were called “Paternosters” or “gauds.” “Gaud” would seem to have logically derived from the Latin word “Gaude” (to rejoice); however, there is no known recorded evidence of this correlation, except for far later unsupported claims. The smaller, often more plain beads denoting the praying of the Ave Maria prayer are known as “Ave” beads.

Figure 13: Paternoster Pendant.
(ca. 1440-50).
Virgin and Child (obverse).
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Public Domain

Figure 12: Paternoster Pendant.
ca. (1440-50). Meeting of
Joachim and Anna at the
Golden Gate (reverse).
Metropolitan Museum of Art.
Public Domain.

No matter how they are strung, Paternoster beads typically terminate in some object. The most common element across Europe seems to be the tassel, whether of silk, wool, or ribbon. In extant examples, many of these have rotted away to mere fragments, but enough to document their presence. Other elements, such as crosses or medals, might have hung from the opposing end, such as in the Philip de Croÿ painting, or alongside or even within the tassel. Crosses or crucifixes were another notable element, often fastened to the opposite end of a linear Paternoster. Looped, or necklace-style Paternosters, frequently terminated in a tassel or were sometimes joined by a cross. These crosses and crucifixes varied in materials, ranging from cast metal of either common metals or precious metals to wood, semiprecious stones, and precious gems. A particularly interesting style of cross is fashioned from beads. Round beads of gems or pearls and/or tubular beads of metal or carved wood were strung in such a way as to fashion a cross (fig. 11). Medals of saints or biblical figures, as well as pilgrims’ medals, particularly scallop shells, were often attached to the Paternoster either as part of the original design or as a later addition by the user. These were sometimes hung beside or within the tassel, or were attached elsewhere within the beads. In addition to or in place of a tassel or cross on one end, some linear 

Figure 14: Master of St. 
Veronica, Madonna with the 
Pea-blossom. (c. 1410-1415).
Collection of Ferdinand Franz
Wallraff, Creative Commons
License.
https://creativecommons.org/
licenses/by-sa/4.0/

Paternosters were outfitted with a ring that could be looped through a thin belt or worn on the finger
to secure the beads during use. Pomanders of openwork metal were another fanciful inclusion in medieval Paternosters. These were thought to contain fragrant resins or herbs, and it is debated whether their purpose was to serve as a spiritual reminder of the sweetness of heaven or a means to mask earthly odors. Opulent Paternosters might also contain figural additions, including depictions of saints or biblical figures in fine metals, as well as pendants. A stunning example is a gold and silver mid-15th-century Western European pendant in the Franco-Burgundian style featuring an enameled image of the meeting of Joachim and Anna at the Golden Gate on the reverse (fig. 12), and a sardonyx cameo of the Virgin and Child in the obverse (fig. 13). Additionally, the Paternosters of some fortunate owners contained small reliquaries to house various saintly relics or pieces of the True Cross. As religious objects, Paternosters were typically exempt from sumptuary laws that dictated what and how many luxury items one could wear based on their position.  This enabled those who could afford to do so, to buck the rules and wear opulent sets of Paternosters with as many precious elements as they could buy. Thus, though often worn at the waist hung over a belt, Paternosters were also hung on a brooch worn on the breast above the heart (fig. 14), and a looped Paternoster, particularly one of fine materials, could double as a showy necklace. 

Recreating Philip Philip I de Croÿ’s Paternoster

The 1460 oil on oak panel painting by Rogier van der Weyden depicts Philip with a handsome linear Paternoster (most popular with men) entwined in his hands as they are held together in prayer. The

Figure 15: Detail. Rogier van der Weyden. (1460).
Diptych of Philip de Croÿ with the Virgin
and Child. [oil on oak panels]. Public Domain

Paternoster appears to be composed of large, evenly strung beads of warm gold and oxidized silver colors. There are small glimpses of the cord, which appears to be a darker golden color. There is a gold-colored crucifix on one end of the Paternoster, and it terminates in a gold-colored tassel topped with a gold-colored decorative metal cap.

Upon close examination of the painting, I am most convinced that the paternoster is composed of plain gold and silver beads strung on knotted silk cord with a silk tassel capped in gold and a gold “fleur” crucifix (fig.15).

My initial thought was that the beads were glass, pearl-like beads that used mercury in their production to create the luminous quality. These might have been imported from Venice or the newer bead exports from Bavaria and Bohemia (Karklins, 2019), all of which had highly skilled glass bead makers and actively exported beads for use in the making of prayer beads.  Although this is still a possibility, it was a comparison between the hilt of Philip’s sword and the coloration of the Paternoster beads that led me to change my mind. The beads were painted exactly like the metals of the sword, leading me to favor smooth, orb-shaped beads made of gold and silver. The cost of such a Paternoster would not have been an issue, as Philip’s family and station would easily afford him a Paternoster as luxurious as he pleased. I have ruled out actual pearls, as I cannot find evidence of black pearls being used, or known of, in Europe before the 16^th-century expeditions of Hernán Cortés and further Spanish exploration of Pacific North America and subsequent colonizations. Furthermore, it would be exceedingly difficult to obtain a collection of such large, evenly shaped, and evenly colored black and golden pearls. As for the number of these orbs, my count (estimating the area obscured by Philip’s hands) arrived at an unusual twenty-four. This is not a typical number of beads for a Paternoster. However, I found some reassurance in locating two modern reproductions that also arrived at this unlikely number; so, in the interest of integrity to the original, twenty-four it is.

FIgure 16: Components assembled for stringing.
(clockwise from top left) fleur Crucifix,
finished tassel mounted in metal cap, adhesive for
securing final knot, gold and silver beads,
silk twist for stringing

Although I initially ruled out the use of actual pearls in the original, I ultimately chose gold and silver-colored glass faux pearls for my reproduction. These had the best combination of size, appearance, smoothness, and the luminous, warm gold and oxidized silver look of the beads in the painting. Many other finds led me to garish or puny fakes, exorbitantly expensive (and still puny) real gold or silver beads, or beads that featured additional design elements, such as hammering, faceting, filigree, or variations in finish. The glass pearls were affordable, looked perfect, and lent a nice weight and durability to the piece. 

As for the metal findings, the tassel cap was obtained through a jewelry supplier.  It was challenging to
find a cast metal cap that exactly mimicked the one in the painting. The one I found was the closest I could find with a design that was appropriate for the period and the
culture. The gold-plated tassel cap had a bright, shiny lacquer finish that was not suitable for the piece, so I stripped the lacquer by soaking it in salt and vinegar and brushing it away. The crucifix is a cast bronze reproduction of unknown origin that I acquired from a seller specializing in reproduction rosary-making materials. The “fleur” style of the cross and the slight, not-too-detailed corpus were just right
for the piece. The only issue was that it was only available in sterling or bronze. I chose the bronze version and applied a gold leaf wax finish to neutralize the two metal pieces and make their colors more cohesive. This is a reasonably durable finish, but it may have to be reapplied over time if the piece is handled frequently.

Figure 17: Tying the first knot. 

The tassel was created with a shiny gold vintage embroidery thread of unknown manufacture. A burn test led me to believe that it is rayon; however, the color and sheen were representative of those in the painting. I made a simple tassel using a cardboard form and adhered it into the metal tassel cap. Once set, I evenly trimmed the tassel ends and removed any loose threads.

The arrangement of the Paternoster beads in this painting suggests that they are either tightly strung or knotted in the manner of pearls. I used an antique gold silk twist. This can be commercially obtained in several thicknesses and colors from jewelry making suppliers, or it can be plied silk thread spun on drop spindles, where each single thread is spun counterclockwise. Once spun, the threads are plied together in a clockwise direction on a drop spindle to create the cord. The neat, even distribution of the beads led me to choose hand-knotting for stringing the beads. The tassel was looped onto a long piece of dark golden silk twist. Then, the beads were added in the “two-silver, one-gold” pattern, as in the painting, and knotted in between. The crucifix was added last,

Figure 18: Knotting the beads. 

and the final knot was secured with a dab of adhesive. The double-strand knotting provided a neat appearance and also lends an element of security in case one of the threads breaks during use.    

These methods worked well for recreating this Paternoster. While many of the recorded Paternoster guilds specialized in particular materials (such as the amber and jet guilds in Paris), there are extant beads of great variety and Paternosters composed of mixed materials that surely involved procuring elements from other artisans. Overall, the chosen materials are as close as possible to those likely used in the 15^th century, with the greatest modern care taken in selecting expense-based substitutions. Construction is straightforward, and knotting with silk cord was a known technique for stringing pearls and other beads. Some modern helps aided in achieving the correct aesthetic, such as gold-leaf paste to make sundry metals more cohesive and embroidery thread of questionable fiber content to make the tassel. 

Other

Figure 19: Progress, and nice, neat, knots.

(invisible) modern aids, namely glue, helped secure the tassel in its cap and seal the final knot.  

   

Figure 20: Pious and Fashionable. 

Figure 21: Channeling my inner Philip.

References

Alberge, D. (2022). First ever prayer beads from medieval britain discovered. The Telegraph. 26 June 2022. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2022/06/26/first-ever-example-prayer-beads-medieval-britain-discovered/

Benson, L. (ed.), Chaucer, G. (2008). The riverside chaucer. Oxford University Press.

Boileau, E. (1879). Le livre des métiers. Paris, Imprimerie nationale.

Evans, J. (1953). A history of jewellery. Pitman Publishing Corporation.

Orme, N. (2021). Going to church in medieval England. Yale University Press.

Karklins, K. (2019). Furnace-wound beadmaking in the bavarian/bohemian forests and environs, 15th-19th centuries. The Bead Forum. Spring 2019. Issue 74. pp 1–3. https://www.beadresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/Repeating_Material/The_Bead_Forum_Archive/The-Bead-Forum-Issue-74-Spring-2019.pdf

Miller, J. (2002). The rosary in history and devotion. Bloomsbury Publishing. Google Books  Beads and Prayers: The Rosary in History and Devotion - John Desmond Miller - Google Books

Paravicini, W. Montée, crise, réorientation. Pour unse histoire de la famille de Croy au XVe siècle, in: Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 98 (2020), 2, pp. 149–355. https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2020_num_98_2_9457

Sherr Dubin, L. (1995). The history of beads; concise edition. Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated

Skeat, W. W. (Ed.). (1871). The gothic and anglo-saxon gospels in parallel columns with the versions of wycliffe and tyndale: arranged with prefatory notice and notes. Cambridge University Press.

Wilkins, E. (1969). The rose-garden game: the symbolic background to the european prayer-beads. London, Victor Gollancz.

Bibliography and Selected Works

Bennett, E. (1991). Late medieval rosaries. Tournaments Illuminated. Summer 1991. Issue 99. pp. 13–16.

Boileau, E. (1879). Le livre des métiers. Paris, Imprimerie nationale.

Bonaventure, St. (2016). The psalter of the blessed virgin mary. St. Athanasius Press.

Evans, J. (1953). A history of jewellery. Pitman Publishing Corporation.

Gaimster, D., Hamling, T., Richardon, C. (2016). The Routledge Handbook of Material Culture in Early Modern Europe. Taylor & Francis.

Harrison, B. (2012). Young women's window, st anietus' church, st neot. Wikimedia Commons. Creative Commons License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/2.0/ Note: Image cropped to isolate detail in compliance with license.

Karklins, K. (2019). Furnace-wound beadmaking in the bavarian/bohemian forests and environs, 15th-19th centuries. The Bead Forum. Spring 2019. Issue 74. pp 1–3. https://www.beadresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/Repeating_Material/The_Bead_Forum_Archive/The-Bead-Forum-Issue-74-Spring-2019.pdf

Master of St Veronica (attributed). (c. 1410–1415). Madonna with the pea-blossom. [Walnut and Oak]. Collection of Ferdinand Franz Wallraf. Creative Commons License https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/

Miller, J. (2002). The rosary in history and devotion. Bloomsbury Publishing. Google Books  Beads and Prayers: The Rosary in History and Devotion - John Desmond Miller - Google Books

Orme, N. (2021). Going to church in medieval England. Yale University Press.

de Osona the Elder, R., assistant (unknown). (c. 1464-1510) The adoration of the magi. [Oil on Pine Panel]. Public Domain.  

Paravicini, W. (2020). Montée, crise, réorientation. Pour unse histoire de la famille de Croy au XVe siècle, in: Revue belge de philologie et d'histoire 98 (2020), 2, pp. 149–355. https://www.persee.fr/doc/rbph_0035-0818_2020_num_98_2_9457

Sherr Dubin, L. (1995). The history of beads; concise edition. Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated

Skeat, W. W. (Ed.). (1871). The gothic and anglo-saxon gospels in parallel columns with the versions of wycliffe and tyndale: arranged with prefatory notice and notes. Cambridge University Press.

Spoilt Rotten Beads. (2023). Double strand pearl knotting tutorial | beginners jewellery making. [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/amkTEvzXFZk?si=1NpiEnogpMivrXtA

Thomas, A.H. (ed). (1932), Calendar of the plea and memoranda rolls of the city of london: volume 3, 1381-1412. His Majesty's Stationery Office. https://www.british-history.ac.uk/plea-memoranda-rolls/vol3/pp205-227

van der Weyden, R. (1460). Diptych of philip de croÿ with the virgin and child. [oil on oak panels]. Public Domain.

van der Weyden, R. (1438). The magdalen reading. [oil on mahogany]. Public Domain.

Wilkins, E. (1969). The rose-garden game: the symbolic background to the european prayer-beads. London, Victor Gollancz.

Winston-Allen, A. (1999). Stories of the rose: the making of the rosary in the middle ages. Penn State Press.